Four-year-olds born during England’s first lockdown performed well on many tests of language and reasoning, but researchers found signs that executive functioning skills may need extra support as this generation moves on to school.
Study: Developmental outcomes in 4-year-old children born in the first COVID-19 lockdown in England: preliminary findings from the Born In COVID Year – Core Lockdown Effects (BICYCLE) study. Image credit: Zamrznuti tonovic/Shutterstock.com
A recent one Archive of Diseases in Childhood The study assessed the growth of four-year-old children born during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) lockdown.
Developmental outcomes among children born during the COVID-19 lockdown
The COVID-19 pandemic represented a global crisis that fundamentally reshaped daily routines and social structures. In England, public health restrictions from March 2020 to July 2021 led to prolonged lockdowns, severely limiting social contact, enforcing social distancing and face coverings, and limiting time outside the home. These interventions have led to widespread closures of businesses, schools, childcare facilities and leisure facilities, while family health services have experienced significant disruptions due to redeployment of staff and reduced appointments.
Early childhood is a critical period for the acquisition of fundamental language, executive function, and motor skills, which are based on a variety of social and environmental experiences. Infants born during the lockdown spent their 18 months of formative years in environments characterized by less varied communication and social exposure, limited access to play and learning resources, and limited physical exploration. Changes in family dynamics further affected language and social-emotional development. These foundational competencies are central to school readiness and long-term educational outcomes. National figures reveal a post-pandemic drop in the proportion of 2-year-olds in England achieving key developmental milestones.
While research into motor skills is less extensive, available evidence suggests possible delays in young children born during the pandemic. Large-scale studies from the US and Canada report declines in communication, social and motor skills among children aged 12-24 months, findings corroborated by smaller European studies.
Existing research on the impact of the pandemic is heterogeneous, including children born before, during and within periods of strict lockdown. For children born before the pandemic, most studies report negative effects on communication and executive function, although some document minimal or positive effects.
The researchers assessed growth in children born during the lockdown
The Born In COVID Year-Core Lockdown Effects (BICYCLE) study investigated the developmental outcomes of 4-year-old children in England born during the COVID-19 lockdown, when formal schooling begins. The study focused on whether these children showed general developmental differences or specific strengths and weaknesses.
The broader cross-sectional observation The BICYCLE study includes children born before, during and after the lockdown, but this preliminary report only included those born during the initial lockdown (23 March – 23 June 2020). Participants were recruited using stratified volunteer sampling to achieve representation across English regions and levels of neighborhood deprivation. Eligibility required English-speaking families, children who were not born very prematurely, without genetic disorders or developmental delay, and with a stable primary caregiver.
Of the 205 participating children, assessments at age 4 covered language, nonverbal reasoning, executive function, and motor skills, using five standardized tests and two parent/caregiver questionnaires. Language and nonverbal reasoning were assessed directly, while executive functions and motor skills were measured using caregiver questionnaires. Most assessments were conducted remotely between May 2024 and June 2025.
Children born during lockdown show unexpected language advantages amid concerns about executive functions
Instead of finding widespread developmental delays, the researchers found that many of the children did as well, or even better, than expected for their age. Scores on sentence structure, expressive vocabulary, receptive vocabulary, and nonverbal reasoning all exceeded pre-pandemic norms, while word structure and motor skills were broadly in line with age-based expectations.
Despite these encouraging findings, one area consistently stood out. Caregivers reported significantly more executive functioning difficulties than would normally be expected, particularly in skills related to working memory, planning, organization and self-control. More children than expected also fell into the below-average range for executive functions, with 5.4 percent scoring very low on word structure, compared with the 2 percent expected by pre-pandemic norms.
To better understand these findings, the researchers also compared each developmental skill to the children’s nonverbal reasoning ability, a measure of their broader cognitive abilities. Sentence structure and receptive vocabulary go hand in hand with this higher level of reasoning ability. However, expressive language, executive function, and motor skills did not, suggesting that these domains were relative weaknesses compared to the children’s overall cognitive profile rather than clear developmental deficits.
Specifically, expressive language and motor skills continued to generally meet age-based expectations, while executive function remained the most consistent area of concern.
Building foundations for post-lockdown childhood
Caregiver-reported executive functioning remains a key concern for children born during lockdown, with expressive language and motor skills appearing relatively weaker than children’s non-verbal ability, despite generally meeting age-based expectations. In a relatively large sample that directly assesses language and nonverbal reasoning and indirectly assesses executive functions and motor skills, language and motor skills generally meet or exceed expected standards, although targeted support for executive function may be necessary.
The researchers suggest that classroom interventions may benefit from prioritizing behavior regulation, strategies focused on executive functions, and explicit expressive language support over individual testing or expert referrals. These findings are relevant to children affected by lockdowns in the UK and elsewhere, as well as those born soon after restrictions were lifted. Continued research is needed to identify optimal strategies to support this generation. The BICYCLE study provides a basis for understanding and addressing the effects of severe social constraints in early life.
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